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THE SOUTHERN WORLD, AUGUST 1, 1882.
JP* W at [h Mtop-
The Economy or the Windmill as a
Prime Mover.
BY ALFRED B. WOLFE, M. E., MEW YORE CITY.
American Miller, Chicago.
In the course of professional work I have
repeatedly had occasion to investigate the
question of the impulse of wind upon wind
mills, and to observe the economical per
formance of the latter, From time to time
I have published various results of these
investigations, but have not given a record
of the actual economy of the windmill, the
subject proper of this note. I propose to di
rect attention to the demonstration of the
fact that whatever improvement in efflci-
ciency be possible in tbs future, windmills,
as at present constructed, are the most eco
nomical prime-movers for those uses for
which they are specifically designed.
In this demonstration conclusions will be
based only on observed facts or actual run
ning results. I am enabled to do this inas
much as some five years ago one of the most
prominent windmill manufacturers came to
me with a few scattered data of actual per
formances of his mills, which, however,
were sufficient by means of deductions and
analogy from theoretical principles, to war
rant the preparation of the following table:
An foot wheel, with a velocity of wind
at 15 to 20 miles per hour, will have from 70
to 75 revolutions, and raise per minute 0.162
gallons of water to an elevation of 25 feet,
and 3,010gallons 50 feet, giving an equiva
lent actual useful horse power developed of
.04, and the average number of hours per
day during which that result can be ob
tained will be 8 to 10 hours.
A10 foot wheel, with the wind at a veloc
ity of 15 to 20 miles per hour, will have
from 60 to 05 revolutions and raise per min
ute 19,170 gallons of water to an elevation
of 25 feet, or 0,503 gallons 50 feet, or 0,638
gallons 75 feet or 4,750 gallons 100 feet.
A 12 foot wheel, with the same velocity of
wind and 55 to 00 revolutions, will raise
every minute 33,941 gallons 25 feet, 17,052
gallons 50 feet, 11,851 gallons 75 feet. 8,485
gallons 100 feet or5,G80 gallons 150 feet.
A 14 foot wheel, with the same velocity,
will have 60 to 55 revolutions and raise per
minute 45,139 gallons to an elevation of 25
feet, 22,669 gallons 60 feet, 15,304 gal.ons75
feet, 11,240 gallons 100 feet, 7,807 gallons 150
feet or 4,098 gallons 200 feet.
A 16 foot wheel, with same velocity and
45 to 60 revolutions, will raise per minute,
04,600 gallons to an elevation of 25 feet, 31,-
054 gallons 50 feet, 19,542 gallons 75 feet, 10,-
160 gallons 100 feet, 9,771 gallons 150 feet or
8,075 gallons200 feet.
An 18 foot wheel, same velocity and 40 to
45 revolutions will raise per minute, 97,682
to an elevation of 25 feet, 52,105 gallons 50
feet, 32,513 gallons 76 feet, 23,421 gallons 100
feet, 17,485 gallons 150 feet or 12,211 gallons
200 feet.
A 20 foot wheel, same velocity, and 35 to
40 revolutions will raise per minute, 124,950
gallons to an elevation of 25 feet, 03,750 gal
lons 50 feet, 40,800 gallons 75 feet, 31,248 gal
lons 100 feet, 10,284 gallons 150 feet, or 15,-
938 gallons 200 feet.
A 25 foot wheel same velocity and 30 to 35
revolutions, will raise per minute, 212,381
gallons to an elevation of 25 feet, 100,904
gallons 50 feet, 71,608 gallons 75 feet? 49,725
gallons 100 feet, 37,343 gallons 150 feet, or
20,747 gallons 200 feet.
Since the preparation of this table, over a
thousand windmills have been sold on its
guarantee, and in all cases the actual results
obtained, both in this country and else
where, did not vary sufficiently from those
above presented to cause any complaint
whatever; a proof that the results, as tabu
lated, are very close, or certainly not too
high. If it be claimed that the horse-power
developed appears small, from the stand
point of a (false) prevalent popular opinion
it should be observed in response that the
actual results noted in the table are in close
agreement with those obtained by theoreti
cal analysis of the impulse of wind upon
windmill blades. It will, therefore, be just
to base the economy of the windmill as
prime-mover on the performance recorded
in this table, and the expense of obtaining
the power will be presented further on.
Conceding for a moment its economy, the
possible employment of the windmill as
prime-mover is dependent as well on other
considerations. The objection urged against
the use of the windmills Is the uncertainty
of the motive fluid—wind; but we will see
that this objection serves not to prevent, but
only restrict the use of the windmill as
prime-mover. Of course, it must be acknowl
edged that there are minutes and hours of
total calm, and this restricts the employ
ment of the windmill for such purposes,
where either the nature of the work done
by the windmill allows of its being suspend
ed during a calm, as work on a farm, for in
stance, or where the work can be stored, as
in pumping water for a variety of purposes,
or in compressing air, or, as was lately pro
posed by 8fr William Thomson, for storing
electricity by means of dynamo machines
and electrical accumulators. There is an
other restriction which goes into practical
effect, namely, that the large size of a wind
mill for a given power makes it practically
desirable only to be used for small power,
but actually it is only designed for the use
of small powers, usually between 1-25 and
4-horse-power, and for such powers it will
be shown in this note that it is the most
economical and serviceable prime-mover for
the purposes for which it is designed.
The difficulty urged by Sir William Thom
son to its adoption, in its present state of de
velopment, for storing electrical accumula
tors, is the first cost of the windmill, but
this was doubtless an oversight, for the in
terest on the capital expended, and not cap
ital itself, becomes one of the iterasoof cur
rent expense in judging of the economy of
prime-movers, and, as will become evident
from the contents of this note, the question
of expense of producing power will not
prove an objection, but, on the contrary,
the best reason for tbe introduction of wind
mills to charge electrical accumulators.
It must be specially mentioned that ex
perience has shown that the wind blows fast
enough to run tbe windmill up to the regu
lating speed in the above table on an average
of eight to ten hours per day of twenty-four
hours, and our estimate of work done and
expense of power will be based on ah actual
running of only eight hours per day.
The current expense of any prime-mover,
or the cost of obtaining the horse-power de
veloped per unit of time, which alone should
form the basis of a comparison of the econ
omy of different prime-movers, consists
principally in interest, repairs, and deprecia
tion of plant, cost of fuel, oil, and attend
ance. In windmills the cost of fuel is zero,
wind being a free gift of nature. The attend
ance required for the self-regulating wind
mill, designated in the above table, amounts
to only Ailing the oil-cups three or four times
a month, the work of a few minutes, which
any one can attend to. If any account is to
be taken of this service, an allowance of
fifteen cents a month would really be quite
extravagant. In the following table such
allowance has been made. Experience has
shown that the repairs and depreciation
items, jointly, are amply covered by 5 per
cent, of the first cost per annum. Interest
is calculated at 5 per cent, per annum. The
oil used is a very suall quantity—a few gal
lons per year—and is allowed forin the table
according to the size of mill. All the items
of expense, including both the interest and
repairs, are reduced to the hour by dividing
the costs per annum by 305x8=2,920, the
interest, etc., for the twenty-four hours be
ing charged on tbe eight hours of actual
work.
An 8X foot wheel, raising 370 gallons per
hour, to an elevation of 25 feet, averaging 8
hours per day, will develop a horse power
equivalent to .04. The expense for interest
on first cost will be 8.25, for repairs 0.25, for
attendance 00, for oil 04, making the expense
16 cents per horse power per hour.
A 10 foot wheel, elevating 1,151 gallons
per hour, to the same height, will develop a
horse power equivalent to .12 The expense
will be 70 cents, or 5.8 per horse power per
hour.
A 12 foot wheel, elevating to 25 feet, 2,030
gallons per hour, will develop a horse power
equivalent to .21. The expense will be 82
cents or 3.9 per horse power.
A 14 foot wheel, elevating 2,708 gallons
will have a horse power equal to .28. The
expense will be 1.03 or 5.8 per horse power.
A 16 foot wheel, elevating 3,876 gallons
per hour, will have a horse power of .41. The
expense will be 2.43 or 5.9 per horse power.
A 18-foot wheel elevating 5,861 gallons per
hour, will have a horse-power equivalent to
.61. The expense will be 2.83 or 4.0 per
horse-power.
A 20-foot wheel elevating 7,947 gallons
will have a horse-power equal to .79. The
expense will be 3.55 or 4.5 per horse-power.
A 25-foot wheel elevating 12,743 gallons,
will have a horse-power equal to 1.31. The
expense will be 4.20 or 3.2 per horse-power
per hour.
The number of gallons pumped by the 30-
foot and 35-foot mills and larger sizes
and the economy of the same are not given
in the above table, for the number of larger
mills in operation is not sufficient to insure
the authenticity of the results thus far ob
talned. The performance of the 30-foot mill
as far as observed, seems to gravitate to a
pumping capacity equivalent to 2.4 horse
power, and an expense of 2.5 cents per horse
power per hour.
When the flgures in the table are con
trasted with the cost of pumping the same
amount of water by other prime movers,
where in addition to expense of interest, re
pairs, depreciation and oil, there are tbe
greater expenses of fuel and attendance and
often extra insurance on property owing to
the use of steam, the economy of the wind
mill must be evident to all.
To recapitulate: The flgures given in the
body of this note are tbe results of actual
experience with hundreds of wind-mills,
and as such, it was believed, would not be
without interest. They prove conclusively
that at the present time windmills are the
most economical prime movers for tbe powers
and purposes outlined in this note, and for
which they are usually designed.
Hannracturlng.
Denver Journal of Commerce.
The following flgures show the number of
manufacturing establisments in these cities,
the number of men employed, the amount
of capital invested, and the value of the
annual product in the shape of manufac
tured goods:
Baltimore..
Boston
Brooklyn...
Cincinnati
Cleveland
Denver.,.„...._....
Detroit
Jersey City
Louisville ...
Milwaukee
Newark
New Orleans
New York
Philadelphia
Pittsburg.
Providence
San Francisco.
8t. Louis
Washtngtlon.....
C O
K
.15,3)1
66,831
45.231
in,838
77.001
52,184
22,499
4.310
15.002
10,088
10,509
10.020
29.232
9,439
217,977
17.1,802
30,405
21,338
26,082
39,724
7,116
135,760,106
42,750,134
50.021,109
24,188,502
61,177,335
43,278,732
18,134,789
4,845,000
14,202.159
1I.329.915
19,583,013
13,811,405
23,919,115
8,401.190
164,917,856
170,495,191
50,970,902
23,573.932
29,417,248
45,385.085
5,381,220
121,100,137
169.757,590
40,003,205
341,185,007
in, mi, nr,
47,352.208
9,81)1,000
28,213,580
59,581,141
32,381,022
33,955,130
00.234,525
18,341,000
448,209,248
. 301,591 725
1071 30,465 60,976,902 74.211,889
1,186 21,330 23,573.932 39,590,0,53
2,860 26,062 29,417,248 71,613.385
2,886 39,724 45,385,085 104,383,587
■" 11.641,185
In the number of establishments, New
York has 11,102 and Philadelphia has 8307.
The amount paid in wages during the census
year was: New York $93,370,000; Philadel
phia $60,000,000. The value of the material
used in the industries was: New York
$275,000,000; Philadelphia $187,000,000. The
largest single item . of manufacture in
New York is that of men’s clothing, the
product of which for 1880 is valued at $60,-
708.000. Meat packing is the second largest
industry in New York City, its product for
1880 being $24,297,000. Printing and pub
lishing shows a product of $21,696,000. The
cigar product is $13,347,000; that of refined
lard is $14,758,000, and sugars and molasses,
refined $11,330,000. In Philadelphia the
largest single product in manufacturing
value is sugar and molasses, refined, $42,942,
920. The third manufacturing city is Chi
cago, paying $33,000,000 in one year in wages.
The leading manufacturing industry is meat
packing, whose product in the census year
was $85,000,000. Brooklyn is the fourth city
paying $27,000,000 as a year’s wages. The
leading article is sugar and molasses, re
fined, the product of which in 1880 was $50,-
711.000. Boston ranks fifth on tbe basis of
the value of the manufactured product;
men’s clothing and sugar and molasses, re
fined being each $16,000,000. The sixth city
is St. Louis, with $13,759,000 of flouring and
grist-mill products. Cincinnati is the seventh
manufacturingcity. Baltimore conies eighth,
and Pittsburg ninth in rank.
From the statistics just furnished by the
Census Bureau, on the manufacturing in the
United States, we find that a few cities
which in 1870, were not known in the man
ufacturing world, are rapidly coming into
prominence. Among these cities we find
that Denver is mentioned; and although the
amount of the annual product falls short by
many millions in comparison with the pro
duct of the large Eastern cities, at the same
time it shows a healthy increase.
The Silk Association of America has pub
lished, through Mr. W. C. Wyckoflf, its re
port for the last fiscal year. Tbe imports of
silk manufacture in New York alotie have
reached the unprecedented amount of $36,-
432,706, against $30,601,851 for the year ended
June 30,1881. The raw silk imports in New
York and San Francisco have reached the
encouraging amount of 21,682 bales, worth
$13,177,898, against 20,198 bales, worth $10,-
885,167, imported last year. The raw silk
came chiefly from Japan, and after that in a
declining seals from Shanghai, Europe, and
Hong Kong. It will be observed that the
amount of imjiorted raw silk illustrates the
rise of an interresting and important indus
try. Many a piece of silk worn in this
country has been manufactured at home,
though the wearer may think It a Lyons
fabric. Mr. Wyckoff’s tables do not show
the consumption of silk and silk goods in
this country, nor the state of the silk trade;
but it is safe to say that, in the consump
tion and manufacture of silk our position is
relatively and absolutely a strong one.
Cot Nalls.
The following statistics concerning the
manufacture of cut nails in the United
States is taken from the report of the Amer
ican Iron and Steel Association :
States. 100 lb. ke(*.
Pennsylvania 1,914,700
West Virginia 1,241,102
Ohio 860,665
Massachusetts 525,089
Illinois 352,643
Indiana 320,496
New Jersey .’ 248,521
Virginia 127,566
Tennessee 94,495
Kentucky 69,000
Nebraska 31,067
New York 2,256
Total 5,794,206
Our production of cut nails in 1881,
given above, was much the largest in our
history.—Our next largest production was
in 1880, when we produced 5,370,512 kegs.
It is a noticeable fact that the production of
cut nails in this country has notin recent
years advanced with the rapidity which has
characterized other branches of our iron and
steel industries. In 1873 our production
was 4,024,704 kegs, and in 1874 it was 4,912,-
180 kegs. From 1874 to 1879 the annual
productious fluctuated beteen 4,000,000 and
5,000,000 kegs in the latter year amounting
to 5,011,121 kegs.
Worm and Hot Springs.
The springs called thermal springs are
found in all latitudes, at various elevations
above the sea, and in most of the geological
formations. The word thermal does not,
however, denote a spring of any particular
degree of temperature, and is far from signi
fying that the springs to which it is applied
are equally warm; for any spring is thermal,
the water of which is warmer than the mean
annual temperature of the place where it
occurs. In the equatorial regions, where
the mean annual temperature is about 80°,
a thermal spring should have a temperature
of about 85°, while in the northern parts of
the earth, as, for example, Yakutsk, in Si
beria, where the year’s temperature does not
exceed 13°, it need be only a little above
that. The waters of thermal springs main
tain an equable temperature, and must,
therefore come out of depths in the earth at
which tbe variations in the temperature of
the air exert no influence. According to
Bossingault, this depth in the tropics is only
a little more than one or two feet, but be
tween 48° and 52° of north latitude it is
between sixty-six and ninety-three feet be
low the surface. Besides the springs that
are called thermal, many springs are found
the temperature of which exceeds'the high
est mean temperature of the year, and are
called warm springs. Examples are the
spring at Carlsbad, 167°; that of Wiesbaden,
158°; those of Baden-Baden, 154° to 1U°,
etc. The depth from which these waters
come may be approximately caculated by
the rule that the temperature increases one
degree for every ninety feet below the sur
face. Hence the water of the bubbling
spring at Carlsbad is supposed to come from
a depth of seven thousand three hundred
feet.
A third class of springs, the boiling
springs, geysers, or hot springs, whose tem
perature is near the boiling-point of water,
are peculiar in respect to the places where
they appear. They are found only in vol
canic regions; are numerous in Iceland,
where there are more than a hundred of
them; on the North Island of New Zealand,
where they are most abundant in the neigh
borhood of the Roto Mahana, or Hot Lake;
and near the Yellowstone Lake, the Fire-
hole and the Madison Rivers, in the region
of the Wind River Mountains, in the United
States, where some eight hundred of them
are grouped within a certain well-defined
area.—Dr. Otto Wallerhofer, on “ The Meehan-
iet of Intermittent Springe," in the Popular
Science Monthly.
In the Central Hall of the Museum of
Egytian Antiquities at Boolak, ranged side
by side, shoulder to shoulder, lies a solemn
company of kings, princes, 'queens, and
priests of royal blood, who died between
three and tour thousand yean ago.